PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY
AND EDUCATION
The term
philosophy is derived from two Greek words ‘philein’ meaning love, to strive
after, to search for; and ‘sophia’ meaning wisdom. Philosophy thus involves a
search for wisdom by a philosopher. Philosophers take nothing for granted: not
even themselves or their wisdom: as such they are constantly searching for
answers and are concerned with the meaning and significance of life. This
search can make them a nuisance to everyone e.g. Socrates spent most of his
time in the streets of Athens going around discussing with people, taking
nothing for granted and questioning everything e.g. what is good, what is true,
what is beautiful, what is courage, justice democracy. He considered his task
similar to that of a midwife and a sculptor: to bring to birth a new idea, and
to create new things, new knowledge respectively. Eventually people in the
state of Athens grew tired of him and put him to death.
CONTENT OF TECHNICAL PHILOSOPHY
This philosophy is concerned with four main areas namely;
logic, epistemology, axiology and metaphysics. These are called the branches of
philosophy.
1.
Logic
It refers to
the study of correct reasoning. It deals with the structure and principles of
sound arguments. On our daily basis, individuals are engaged in various forms
of arguments, where premises/statements are made and conclusions drawn. In most
cases, wrong conclusions are arrived at involving wrong premises and undue generalizations.
Logic is essential because it stipulates how arguments should be constructed
and how fallacies (erroneous beliefs or myths) can be detected and avoided.
Within logic, two forms of reasoning can be distinguished: deductive and
inductive.
(i) Deductive reasoning
This involves reasoning from general to
particular instances. In this case, a conclusion is inferred or deduced from general
premises/statements/propositions.
The above reasoning has been expressed in syllogism form:
the first two statements need to be stated before the third can follow
logically. This type of reasoning is prevalent in philosophy, religion and
mathematics.
(ii) Inductive reasoning
It involves general laws/conclusions being inferred from
particular instances. It is the reverse of deductive reasoning. In this type of
reasoning, various instances of a given specimen are observed over a period of
time. The observation leads to general conclusions/laws being established. This
type of reasoning is applicable with empirical sciences. In modern philosophy,
logic is expressed in two main dimensions:
·
Symbolic logic involving mathematical symbols –
application of symbols to explain phenomena eg a + b = 4: b= 4 – a
·
Analytic logic – prevalently used by analytic
philosophers who emphasise the logical analysis of language to arrive at clear meanings
of terms/concepts.
·
Students studying science, arts or education should be
familiar with the basic rules of logic so as to enable one reason correctly and
use language meaningfully.
2.
Epistemology
This is the philosophical study of
knowledge. Epistemology is derived from two Greek words: episteme (knowledge)
and logia (study). It deals with philosophical reflection on issues related to
knowledge. Epistemology does not deal with factual knowledge such as that which
socio-sciences are involved. empirical sciences like Psychology and sociology
study issues by describing in a factual manner what they have observed about
human knowledge e.g. in cognitive development, a Psychologist will talk about
how it differs in relation to age, individual and the society. The philosopher
on the other hand will not inform on facts and try to justify; instead, he
will think before and after the scientist does his work thereby challenging the
scientist. Epistemology distinguishes clearly between rationalism (which
stresses the role of intellect in knowledge acquisition) and empiricism (pays
attention to sense experience).
It studies the nature, sources and validity of
knowledge. It seeks to answer questions like:
·
What is knowledge?
·
How do we know?
·
What is truth?
·
What can we really know/
·
What does it mean to say that I know something?
·
What are the sources of knowledge?
3 Axiology
It is the philosophical/rational study of values. The
term is derived from Greek words logia (study) and axia (values). It is
subdivided into the following sub branches:
(a) Ethics or moral philosophy – reflects on the
origin and nature of moral values: meaning of what is right and wrong.
(b) Aesthetics – philosophical study of artistic values.
Interested in meaning of beauty, art.
(c) Social and cultural philosophy – study of values
related to societies and cultures
(d) Political philosophy – deals with study of politics,
governance etc.
The
philosophical study of values is restricted to the prescriptive domains. Values
fall under three categories:
·
Objective – values considered to be universal
e.g. good, truth, beauty, freedom, love.
·
Relative – values that depends on personal
preference.
·
Hierarchical – ordering values from the least
desirable to the most desirable.
Philosophical reflection on values
becomes necessary when people are no longer certain about what is important, worthwhile
valuable for one’s life. It’s applied when people are faced with conflicting
moral standards or confronted with radically opposed ideologies that call for
the need for one to think about the foundation of morality and the society.
Ethics/moral philosophy have a great link with education.
4 Metaphysics
This term refers to what goes beyond (meta) physics,
beyond the study nature. It is the study of matter and its relationship with
energy. It deals with questions, things or concerns that lie after or beyond
the physical world of sense experience. Traditionally, it is subdivided
into four areas:
·
Cosmology: the study of the universe (cosmos). It
has to do with the origin and nature meaning of the universe. This is done rationally.
·
Theodicy: rational investigation of the
supernatural. It belongs to the field of theology where religious concepts and
beliefs are assessed.
·
Ontology: the philosophical study of ‘being’.
What is the meaning of existence? What comprises matter? What is man/woman?
What is the essence of being?
·
Rational or philosophical psychology: philosophy
of the mind. It investigates into the intricate processes of perceiving,
imagining, remembering, feeling, understanding, willing. It attempts to solve
the mind/body problem; their composition, nature and relationship e.g. can mind
survive destruction of the body?
PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
INTRODUCTION
It is the
process and outcome of philosophical thinking about education. It is an
educational discipline whose focus is the study of education/an area of
specialization within the study of education. It employs philosophical
approaches in studying education. It utilizes the content, methodology and to
some extend the language of philosophy in analyzing/dealing with educational
issues. Philosophy of education is an integral part of technical philosophy,
equivalent to say philosophy of science, law religion, mathematics etc. The
philosophy of education studies approaches the study of/deals with educational
ideas in sociology, comparative, sociology of education etc. while employing
empirical and inductive approach. As such, philosophy of education is essential
to the study of education in the following ways:
·
It provides room for a vision beyond the empirical data
of education i.e. seeks to explain what education is.
·
It tries to liberate those being educated and their
educators from their shortsightedness. It helps us to enlarge our perception of
education as well as for teaching.
·
It helps the student to think logically, systematically,
consistently and clearly about educational problems as well as life. The
teacher will learn the essence of clarifying meanings and justifying
statements.
·
It equips teachers with insight into the whole purpose of
teaching. Thus, it goes beyond knowledge of subject matter and competence in
teaching skills. Teachers ought to know what they are doing and why they are
doing it.
Schools of
Indian Philosophy, Orthodox and Heterodox Schools
INTRODUCTION
The 6 classical schools (shatdarshan)
are Sankhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshik, Purva Mimansa and Uttar Mimansa
(Vedanta). Almost all Indian schools of thought accepted the theory of
karma and rebirth, and the ideal of moksha is conceived as liberation from the
cycle of births and deaths. Moksha/liberation is considered as the highest
goal of human struggle.
Indian philosophy encompasses
several philosophical traditions that originated in the Indian subcontinent,
including Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain philosophy. They include both orthodox
(Astika) systems, such as the Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga,
Purva-Mimamsa (or Mimamsa), and Vedanta schools of thought, and
unorthodox (nastika) systems, such as Buddhism and Jainism. The book Sarva
Darsana Samgraha, written by Sri Madhavacariya, contains the quintessence
of a few systems of thought that evolved in ancient India. Indian philosophical
thoughts have been dealing with various philosophical aspects, significant
among which are the nature of the world (cosmology), the nature of reality
(metaphysics), logic, the nature of knowledge (epistemology), ethics, and the
philosophy of religion.
Concepts of Indian Philosophy
Indian
philosophy has been designated as ‘darsana’, generally translated as
philosophy, but it means intuitive vision. The intuitive vision consists
of wisdom about reality and the inner and outer secrets of human life. The
interpretations of such wisdom form the basis of philosophical inquiry about
metaphysical doctrines, logical truths, ethical codes and religious practices.
Concept of Punarjanam: According
to Hindu theories of reincarnation or rebirth, individuals repeatedly
reincarnate, pass through many cycles of births and deaths, and live in
numerous bodies as they evolve from simple organisms to complex beings and
finally into humans. The cycle of rebirth ends when they achieve perfection and ‘Moksha’
(liberation).
Concept of Rina: Rina,
meaning debt, is related to the sense of obligation of a man to his duties and
to ensure continuity in tradition. The three major types of debts are Guru
Rina, Pitru Rina and Deva Rina. These debts in life have to be repaid by a
man to attain moksha (liberation).
Major schools agreed that man should
strive for the fulfilment of four goals:
1.
Artha: Economic means or wealth
2.
Dharma: Moral life
3.
Kama: Emotional fulfilment, Pleasure
4.
Moksha: Liberation
Types of Schools in Indian Philosophy
The schools of Indian Philosophy are
broadly categorised as Heterdox and Orthodox Schools: The Vedic
scripture is an ancient treasure trove that exemplifies the Vedic systems’
cultural heritage as well as their religio-philosophical aspects. It contained both ritualistic
and philosophical materials.
A philosophical system like Purva
Mimamsa directly developed their doctrines from the ritualistic portion,
and other schools of Vedanta built up their philosophical system from
the Upanishads, the philosophical part of the Vedas.
Generally, Indian philosophical systems
are classified as orthodox (Astika) and heterodox (Nastika)
systems based on acceptance or rejection of the Vedic authority.
The philosophical schools that accept
the Vedic authority are Nyaya, Vaisesika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mimamsa and
Vedanta. However, Carvaka, Jainism and Buddhism do not accept
Vedic authority.
Orthodox School of Indian Philosophy
·
This school believed that Vedas were the supreme revealed
scriptures that held the secret to salvation.
·
They never questioned the Vedas’ authenticity.
·
They take the ancient Vedas as their source and
scriptural authority.
·
The main Hindu orthodox (astika) schools of
Indian philosophy were codified during the medieval period
of Brahmanic-Sanskritic scholasticism.
·
They had six Shada Darshana sub-schools: Samkhya (or
Sankhya), Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa and Vedanta.
Samkhya School
Founder: Kapil Mani
Core Philosophy: It is
generally believed that Sankhya Philosophy is dualistic and not monistic
because it has two entities, purush (spirit) and prakriti (nature)
in it. Samkhya emphasizes the attainment of knowledge of self by means of
concentration and meditation.
Sankhya holds that it is the
self-knowledge that leads to liberation and not any exterior influence or
agent. Samkhya forms the philosophical basis for Yoga. In Samkhya,
the necessity of God is not felt for epistemological clarity about the
interrelationship between higher Self, individual self, and the universe around
us.
Purush vs Prakriti: In the beginning,
the philosophy was materialistic as it talked only about Prakrithi, but later
the element of purush was also added to it. While Purusha is posited as the
only sentient being, ever existent, and immaterial, Prakriti is said to be the
material basis of this universe, composed of three basic elements (Gunas) –
namely Tamas, Rajas, and Sattva.
This is the oldest school of
philosophy.
·
Samkhya’s tendency of thought pervades all the literature
of ancient India, including the Srutis, Smritis and Puranas.
·
According to tradition, the first work of the Samkhya
School is the Samkhya-sutra.
·
The Samkhya is a dualistic realism philosophy.
·
Theory of Causation: The Samkhya metaphysics,
especially its doctrine of Prakriti, rests mainly on its theory of causation, known
as satkarya-vada.
It accepts only three types
of knowledge (pramana):
1.
Pratyaksha: Perception
2.
Anumana: Inference
3.
Shabda: Hearing
Educational
Aims:
·
Liberation (Moksha) through discriminative
knowledge (Viveka) of Purusha (consciousness) and Prakriti (matter).
·
Self-realization by
understanding the 25 elements (Tattvas) of existence.
·
Rational inquiry (Darshan)
into the nature of reality.
Methods
of Acquiring Valid Knowledge (Pramanas):
1.
Pratyaksha (Perception) – Direct
observation.
2.
Anumana (Inference) – Logical
reasoning.
3.
Shabda (Testimony) – Reliance on
scriptures and teachers.
Contribution
to Education:
·
Encourages scientific temper and analytical
thinking.
·
Stresses empirical and logical
methods of learning.
Yoga School
Founder: Patanjali
Core philosophy: It
postulates that one can achieve salvation by combining meditation
and physical application. Yoga acknowledges God’s existence as a
teacher and guide.
View of Patanjali: Yoga does
not mean union but the spiritual effort to attain perfection through controlling
the body, senses and mind and through right discrimination between Purusa
and Prakrti. Yoga is the practical path of realising the theoretical ideals of
Samkhya Philosophy. Yoga presents a method of physical and mental discipline. The
Yoga presents a practical path for the realization of the self-whereas the
Samkhya emphasizes the attainment of knowledge of self by means of
concentration and meditation. Releasing Purush from Prakriti by means of
physical and mental discipline is the concept of Yoga. (Patanjali’s Ashtanga Yoga)
Educational
Aims:
·
Self-discipline (Yama-Niyama) for
moral and ethical development.
·
Chitta Vritti Nirodha (Control of mind
fluctuations) for concentration.
·
Samadhi (Meditative absorption) for
ultimate knowledge.
Methods
of Acquiring Knowledge:
1.
Dhyana (Meditation) – For inner
clarity.
2.
Svadhyaya (Self-study) – Study of
scriptures.
3.
Ishvara Pranidhana (Surrender to divine) –
For humility in learning.
Contribution
to Education:
·
Introduces mindfulness and
concentration techniques in learning.
·
Emphasizes ethical discipline
(Ahimsa, Satya, Brahmacharya) in education.
Patanjali’s Yoga sutra is divided into
four sections:
·
Samadhi-pada: Nature and aim of concentration
·
Sadhanapada: Means to realise this end
·
Vibhutipada: Supra-normal powers which can be
acquired through Yoga
·
Kaivalyapada: Nature of liberation and the reality
of the transcendental self
The prescribed eight
sadanas to achieve mukti or freedom are:
·
Yama: Self-restrained
·
Niyama: Positive rules of conduct
·
Pratyahara: Choosing an object
·
Dharna: Fixing the mind on the object of meditation
·
Dhyana: Meditation (undisturbed flow of thought)
·
Samadhi: Completely absorbed in the object of
meditation
·
Asanas: Steady and comfortable posture
·
Prayanams: Breathing exercises
Nyaya School
Founder: Akshpaad Gautam
Core philosophy: They
believe in the technique of logical thinking to achieve salvation. Nyaya
is an atomic pluralist and logical realist system.
It acknowledges four distinct sources
of true knowledge:
1.
Pratyaksa: perception
2.
Anumana: inference
3.
Upamana: comparison
4.
Sabda: Testimony
Theory of Knowledge: Knowledge or
Cognition is defined as apprehension or consciousness. They hold that knowledge
reveals both the subject and the object; they are not the same as knowledge. Nyaya
Philosophy states that nothing is acceptable unless it is in accordance with
reason and experience (scientific approach). Nyaya says that the world is real
and the philosophy does not follow a monist view.
Nyaya
philosophy relies on several pramanas i.e. means of obtaining
true knowledge as its epistemology. According to it, the pradhan pramana or
principal means of obtaining knowledge is pratyaksha pramana i.e.
the knowledge obtained through the 5 senses. There are also other pramanas
like anumana (inference, through which we can obtain true knowledge) and
shabda pramana (a statement of an expert).
Subsequent
philosophers who claimed to be Nyayiks, e.g. Vatsyayan (who wrote Nyaya
Bhashya), Udayan (who wrote Kusumanjali) etc. distorted the Nyaya
philosophy by introducing theological elements in it. Navya Nyaya scholars like
Gangesh resorted to gymnasics in logic.
Concept of God: God is
the ultimate cause of the world’s creation, maintenance and
destruction. God is the eternal, infinite self that creates, sustains, and destroys
the universe. He does not create the world out of nothing but eternal atoms,
space, time, ether, minds and souls.
Vaisheshika School
Founder: Kanada
Core philosophy: All
objects in the physical universe are reducible to a finite number of atoms. Brahman
is regarded as the fundamental force in these atoms that causes consciousness. Vaisesika
develops metaphysics and ontology.
The classical
Indian philosophy Vaisheshik was the physics of ancient times. It propounded
the atomic theory of its founder Kannada. At one time Vaisheshik was
regarded as part of the Nyaya philosophy since physics is part of science. But
since physics is the most fundamental of all sciences, Vaisheshik was later
separated from Nyaya and put forth as a separate philosophy. To make it short,
Vaisheshik is a realistic and objective philosophy of the universe.
Views on God: The Vaisesika
theory is substantially similar to the Nyaya’s.
According to the Vaisheshika school,
the laws of Karma guide this universe.
·
They contended that the Universe was created by the five
main elements known as Dravya (fire, air, water, earth, and sky).
·
The Vaisesika system is considered conducive to studying
all systems
·
Its primary goal is to deal with categories and reveal
its atomistic pluralism.
·
All knowledge must necessarily point to an object of
knowledge, which is referred to as a Padartha.
Mimamsa Schools
Purva Mimamsa
Founder: Jamini
Core Philosophy: Mimamsa
philosophy is the analysis of interpretation, application and use of the
text of the Samhita and Brahmana portions of the Veda. Mimamsa is an
etymological term that means “resolution of some problem
through reflection and critical examination.” Mimamsa developed
the ritualistic aspect of the Vedas.
The word
Mimamsa means to analyze and understand thoroughly. Purva Mimamsa
examines the teachings of the Veda in the light of karma-kanda rituals, ie
karma-mimamsa system is called purva-mimamsa. Purva mimansa (or briefly
mimansa) lays emphasis on the performance of the yagya for attaining various
spiritual and worldly benefits. Hence this philosophy relies on the
Brahmana (and samhita) part of the Vedas.
·
The Jaiminiya sutra is the work that
established the principles of this school.
·
Sabaraswami wrote the significant
commentary (bhasya) for this work.
·
The most famous and important commentators
are Kumarila Bhatta and PrabhakaraMisra, who founded the
two schools of philosophy named after them – the Bhatta School of
Mimamsa and the Prabhakara School of Mimamsa.
·
Apadeva wrote an elementary work on the Mimamsa known
as Mimamsaanyayaprakasa.
·
Mimamsa accepts five non-perceptual sources of
knowledge. They are: anumana, upamana, sabda, arthapatti (postulation)
and anupalabdhi (non-perception).
Uttara Mimamsa (Vedanta School)
Vedanta says that the world is unreal,
Maya. Vedanta is monistic, in other words, it says that there is only one
reality, Brahman. Vedanta lays emphasis on brahmagyan, hence relies on the
Upanishad part of the Vedas. Vedanda has its roots in Sankya Philosophy. Vedanta
Philosophy (Advaita & Vishishtadvaita)
There are three sub-branhces for
Vedanda:
1.
Absolute Monism of Shankara
2.
Vishishtha Advaita or qualified monism of Ramanuja
3.
Dvaita of Madhva
Founder: Vyasa
Core Philosophy: Brahm is
the reality of life, and everything else is unreal. They equalise atma and Brahm, and
if a person attains the knowledge of the self, he would automatically understand
Brahm and achieve salvation.
Ø The term
Vedanta means in Sanskrit the “conclusion” (anta) of the Vedas,
Ø It applies to
the Upanishads and the school that arose from the study (Mimamsa) of the
Upanishads.
Ø They believed
in the theory of punarjanama.
Ø The text Brahmasutra
of Badrayana formed the basis of this philosophy.
Ø Thus, Vedanta
is also referred to as Vedanta Mimamsa (“Reflection on
Vedanta”), Uttara Mimamsa (“Reflection on the Latter Part of the
Vedas”), and Brahma Mimamsa (“Reflection on Brahman”).
Ø The three
fundamental Vedanta texts
are Upanishads, Bhagavadgita and Brahma-sutras.
The main traditions of Vedanta are:
·
Bhedabheda (difference and non-difference)
by Nimbarka
·
Advaita (non-dualism) by Adi Shankaracharya.
·
Vishishtadvaita (qualified non-dualism) by
Nathamuni, Yamuna and Ramanuja.
·
Tattvavada (Dvaita) (dualism) by Madhvacharya.
·
Shuddhadvaita (pure non-dualism) by Vallabha.
·
Achintya-Bheda-Abheda (inconceivable difference and
non-difference) by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu.
Educational
Aims:
·
"Tat Tvam Asi" (Thou art That) –
Realization of oneness with Brahman.
·
Jnana (Knowledge) over ritualism –
Focus on self-inquiry (Atma-Vichara).
·
Bhakti (Devotion) in Vishishtadvaita –
Love as a path to wisdom.
Methods
of Acquiring Knowledge:
1.
Shravana (Listening) – Learning
from gurus.
2.
Manana (Reflection) – Critical
analysis.
3.
Nididhyasana (Meditative absorption) –
Internalizing knowledge.
Contribution
to Education:
·
Promotes guru-shishya parampara
(teacher-disciple tradition).
·
Balances intellectual and spiritual
growth.
Heterodox School of Indian Philosophy
The Sramana movement created a wide
range of heterodox beliefs. Schools that do not accept the authority of
Vedas are, by definition, unorthodox (nastika) systems.
Heterodox schools form a group of
systems opposed to the excess of ritualism, spiritualism, world-negating
idealism, oppressive clericalism and inhuman casteism.
The five subdivisions of Heterodox
schools are:
Buddhist philosophy
Jainphilosophy
Charvaka School
or Lokayata philosophy
Ajivika
Philosophy
Ajnana
Philosophy
Charvaka School or Lokayata Philosophy
Founder: Brihaspati
Core Philosophy: Direct
perception is the only means of establishing and accepting the truth.
Carvaka etymologically
means ‘sweet-tongued’.
According to
Carvakas, perception (Pratyaksa) is the only source of valid
knowledge, and they hold that nothing exists except what the five senses
perceive. For them, perception is of two kinds: external (the kind
involving the operation of the five senses) and internal (involves 4
the operation of the mind).
The Carvaka denied the soul or
Atman as a surviving or transmitting entity.
Carvakas did not believe in
the theory of karma; accordingly, they rejected the notion
of rebirth after death.
According to them, the Universe
consists of only four elements (fire, earth, water and air).
View on God: They did
not believe in any metaphysical reality beyond matter; it logically follows
that they rightly consider that traditional concepts of God, religion and life
after death are “pure fictions, sheer imaginations of fevered brains”.
Nothing exists beyond this
material world.
Source of philosophy: Tattvopaplavasimha
of Jayarasi Bhatta
Mention in other works:
Shatdarshan Samuchay and
Sarvadarsanasangraha of Vidyaranya
Sanskrit poems and plays like
the Naisadha-carita, Prabodha-chandrodaya, Agama-dambara, Vidvanmoda-tarangini
and Kadambari contain representations of the Charvaka thought.
Ajivika School
Founder: Goshala Maskariputra Core Philosophy: There is no reason or
cause for the depravity of things; they deprave without reason or cause. There
is also no cause for the purity of beings; they become pure without reason or
cause. A related philosophy which some classify under the heterodox sytem is
Ajivika Philosophy. The Ājīvikas may simply have been a more loosely-organized
group of wandering ascetics (shramanas or sannyasins). Some of its prominent
figures were Makkhali Gosala and Sanjaya Belatthaputta. This was an
ascetic movement of the Mahajanapada period in the Indian subcontinent.
·
Ajivikas believed that every being had a soul
(Atman).
·
The Digha Nikaya, Anguttara Nikaya, Samyutta Nikaya,
Sutrakritanga-sutra, Shilanka’s commentary on the Sutrakritanga-sutra,
Bhagavati-sutra, Nandi-sutra, and Abhayadeva’s commentary on Samavayanga-sutra
are primary sources of knowledge on these.
·
Makkhali denies sin, or adharma, and human freedom
in determining the fate of the species.
·
The Ajivika school is well-known for its Niyati
(“Fate”) doctrine of absolute fatalism or determinism.
·
The oldest descriptions of
the Ajivika fatalists and their founder, Gosala, can be
found in ancient Buddhist and Jaina scriptures.
Ajnana School
Founder: Sanjaya Belatthiputta
Core Philosophy: It was
impossible to obtain knowledge of metaphysical nature or ascertain
the truth value of philosophical propositions, and even if knowledge was
possible, it was useless and disadvantageous for final salvation. They
have been recorded in Jain and Buddhist texts. The Ajanas viewpoints are
recorded in Theravada Buddhism’s Pali Canon in the Brahmajala
Sutta, Samannaphala Sutta, and the Suyagadamga of Jainism
Buddhist
Philosophy
It is a system of beliefs based on the
teachings of Siddhartha Gautma. Buddhism is a non-theistic philosophy
whose tenets are not especially concerned with the existence or non-existence
of God.
Four Noble Truths in Buddhism are the
following.
1. There is
suffering
2. There is a
cause of suffering
3. There is a cessation
of suffering
4. There is a way
to the cessation of suffering
Buddhists philosophy of life to get
‘Nirvana’ from suffering is based on the following eight principles:
1.
Right Faith (Samyak Dristi)
2.
Right Resolve (Samyak Sankalpa)
3.
Right Speech (Samyak Vakya)
4.
Right Action (Samyak Karmanta)
5.
Right Living ( Samyak Ajiva)
6.
Right Thought (Samyak Smriti)
7.
Right concentration (Samyak Samadhi)
8.
Right Effort
(Samyak Vyayama)
Educational Aims:
·
Nirvana (Liberation from suffering) through Prajna
(wisdom).
·
Middle Path (Madhyamika) –
Balanced approach to learning.
·
Compassion (Karuna) and Ethics (Sila) in
education.
Methods
of Acquiring Knowledge:
1.
Pramana (Valid cognition) –
Perception, inference, and testimony.
2.
Vipassana (Insight meditation) –
Direct experiential learning.
3.
Debate (Tarka) – Logical
discussion (e.g., in Nalanda University).
Contribution
to Education:
·
Introduced critical debate (Tarka
Shastra) in ancient universities.
·
Emphasized experiential and ethical
learning.
Jain Philosophy
Already in existence by 6th century
B.C, it was revived by Mahavira, the 24th Jain Tirthankara. According to
Jainism, Nirvana or liberation is obtained through three jewels: Right
Philosophy, Right Knowledge and Right Conduct (Tri-ratna). Right conduct
implies 5 absinences: not to lie, not to steal, not to strive for luxury and
not to strive for possessions, not to be unchaste and not to injure (Ahimsa).
Educational
Aims:
·
Kevala Jnana (Omniscience) through Ahimsa
(non-violence).
·
Anekantavada (Multi-perspectivism) –
Encourages open-mindedness.
·
Syadvada (Relativism) –
"Maybe" logic for tolerance in debates.
Methods
of Acquiring Knowledge:
1.
Pratyaksha (Direct perception)
2.
Matijnana (Scriptural knowledge)
3. Avadhi
(Clairvoyance through meditation)
Contribution
to Education:
·
Promotes non-violence (Ahimsa) in
pedagogy.
·
Encourages multi-dimensional
thinking (Anekantavada).
Islamic Traditions in Indian Education
Educational
Aims:
·
Tawhid (Oneness of God) –
Knowledge as divine pursuit.
·
Adl (Justice) and Ihsan (Excellence) in
learning.
·
Integration of ilm (knowledge) and amal
(action).
Methods
of Acquiring Knowledge:
1.
Naqli (Transmitted knowledge) –
Quran, Hadith.
2.
Aqli (Rational knowledge) –
Logic, science, philosophy.
3. Tajriba
(Empirical observation) – Used in medicine (Unani), astronomy.
Contribution
to Education:
·
Madrasas preserved Greek,
Persian, and Indian sciences.
·
Sufi traditions promoted tolerance
and spiritual learning.
·
Integrated Curriculum Design:
1.
Naqli Sciences:
§ Quranic
tafsir (hermeneutics)
§ Hadith
analysis (critical reasoning)
2.
Aqli Sciences:
§ Falsafa
(Aristotelian logic)
§ Riyaziyyat
(mathematical sciences)
·
Innovative Practices:
o Ijazah
system - Precursor to modern accreditation
o Waqf
institutions - Early form of endowment funding
o Observational
astronomy in mosque architecture
CONTRIBUTION OF WESTERN SCHOOLS OF
THOUGHTS
IDEALISM AND EDUCATION
Definition and meaning of Idealism
The main tenant of idealism is that
ideas and knowledge are the truest reality. Many things in the world
change, but ideas and knowledge are enduring. Idealism was often referred
to as “idea-ism”. Idealists believe that ideas can change lives. The most
important part of a person is the mind. It is to be nourished and developed.
Idealist Ideas. Proponents
include: Socrates, Plato, Descartes, Kant, Hegel and Royce Bishop
George Berkeley etc.
METAPHYSICS OF IDEALISM.
·
Truth is mental and not material.
·
It is
mind not matter.
·
All
things exist in the mind because they can-not be known to exist before the mind
·
notices
them.
·
Reality
is absolute and exists in the supernatural world.
·
Reality is eternal, unchanging,
permanent and universal.
EPISTEMOLOGY
OF IDEALISM.
v The consciousness
of ignorance is the beginning of knowledge which according to
v Socrates is virtue.
v Knowledge is seen as
something in the mind therefore it is inborn.
v It is discovered
through reflection, meditation, inductive reasoning and logical
v deduction (mental
activities).
v According to Plato
knowledge is a product of reasoning, it is a product of probing
v through questions
(Socratic Method) that can bring to consciousness talents and
v concepts already
present in the mind.
v According to Kant, E
the essence of knowing is the imposition of meaning and order
v on information
gathered by the senses.
v According to Saint
Augustine ultimate/true knowledge is gathered through revelation.
v God reveals what has
to be known by men.
v Knowledge acquired
through the senses is uncertain and incomplete since the material
v world is only a
disturbed copy of a more perfect sphere of being.
AXIOLOGY
OF IDEALISM.
v According to idealists’
values are permanent and eternal, they are passed from
v generation to
generation.
v The actual absolute
values of truth, goodness and beauty have to be discovered.
AIMS OF
EDUCATION.
·
Education
is supposed to be a process of turning the eye of the soil from darkness into light.
·
The
role of education is to activate the mind, so that through its own reasoning it
can discover
knowledge.
·
This can
be achieved through the Socratic Method.
·
Education
has to enable the child to realise the soul, recognize his real form and
proceed towards self-realization.
·
Education
should enable children to be able to distinguish right from wrong, being
able to follow the right and reject the
evil.
·
Education
should aim at developing the child into a complete being with full physical, intellectual,
moral, spiritual, emotional and cultural uplift.
·
Education
should not only stretch the development of the mind but should also
encourage students to focus on all
things that are of more lasting value.
·
Practical
subjects are inferior to academic ones as they not involve the mind.
·
Preservation
and enrichment of culture is also key in education.
WEAKNESSES
OF IDEALISM.
Ø Its notion of a
finished and absolute universe waiting to be discovered has hindered
progress in science and area of new
talents.
Ø
It is impracticable.
The Concept of Student
·
The Idealistic pupil is characterized by that admirable
trait, the will to perfection. Whatever he does, he does as well as he
can.
·
He is ambitious to deserve honors in scholarship.
·
He wants to grow in knowledge and wisdom, to appreciate
the aesthetic things in life to deserve approbation, and to be a worthy
person.
·
He strives for perfection because the ideal person
is perfect.
The Concept of Teacher
·
The teacher must be excellent, in order to serve as
an example for the student, both intellectually and morally.
·
Is the most important element in the school to train
learners on perfection.
·
Excel in knowledge and in human insight into the needs
and capacities of the learner.
·
Demonstrates moral excellence in personal conduct and
convictions.
·
Exercises great creative skill in providing
opportunities for the learners' minds to discover, analyze, unify, synthesize
and create applications of knowledge to life and behavior.
·
Serves as a living ideal model for the student by
teaching through example and guidance the lifelong habits of patience,
tolerance and perseverance towards a goal. He thus represents, to some
degree, what the student can become.
·
In teaching, teacher’s role is to be a skillful
questioner who encourages students to think and ask more questions in an
environment that is suitable for learning.
The curriculum
·
The ideal curriculum teaches children to think.
·
Teachers should help students to explore texts for ideas
about the purposes of life, family the nature of peer pressures, and the
problems of growing up.
·
Idealists believe that ideas can change lives: classical
literature, history and biographies can be used and explored to help solve
problems in today’s world.
·
Ideal curriculum selects subject matter that deals
with ideal man and ideal society: subjects essential for the realization
of mental and moral development.
·
Idealist’s rely on the world of the mind; their
curriculum has little contact with the experiential universe characterized by
field trips and empirical or sensory data.
·
As the curricular emphasis is subject matter of mind:
literature, history, philosophy, and religion.
Instructional Methodology
·
All thinking begins with a thesis (opinion) where all
points of view are looked at.
·
It’s a dialectic, a process where ideas are put into
battle against each other, with the most significant idea winning the battle.
·
At the end of the discussion, the ideas or opinions
will begin to synthesize as they work closer to truth.
·
Knowledge can be attained through skillful questioning.
·
Idealist education involves teaching the whole
rather than its parts.
·
The idealist is not concerned with turning out students
with technical skills but to have a broad view and understanding of the world
in which they live.
·
Idealism emphasizes the role of the teacher, a skillful
questioner
·
The lecture method in an idealist’s education
system, it is considered more of a way to convey information and to help
students comprehend ideas.
·
Idealists thus prefer project-based learning as
a form self-directed learning activity where learning can occur without a
teacher’s presence.
·
Teaching methods focus on handling ideas through lecture,
discussion, and Socratic dialogue (a method of teaching that uses questioning
to help students discover and clarify knowledge).
·
Imitation should be of some exemplary person or
persons who by their behavior give evidence that they are close to the
nature of reality.
Common criticisms of this
philosophical school.
1. Sets
Unobtainable Goals: if perfection is unreachable there is very little
desire on the part of most to become perfect.
2. Ignores the
Physical Self: The body cannot be ignored. To try to separate
mental activity from the physical and to try to place Ideas in a realm
unrelated to the existent world becomes nothing more than an exercise in
futility.
3. Deemphasizes
Experience: Many ideas cannot have meaning apart from
experience: to deny the validity of this experience is to make the
universe sterile.
4. Leads to
Totalitarianism: Some of the critiques of idealism is that is discourages
the progress of science and our modern discovery.
5. Emphasizes
Humanities: humanities-oriented outlook, may lead to a
rejection of the whole concept of a technological society which is mechanistic
and “scientifically” oriented.
6. Overlooks
possibility of Error: it fails to take into account the possibility that
it may be in error. This is especially true of idealism since its truth is
immutable and unchanging.
REALISM AND EDUCATION
According to Realism,
the external world of objects is not imaginary. It really exists, "Our
experience is not independent but determines reaction to the external objects.
Experiences are influenced by the external world which has real existence.
According o realists, the external world is a solid Reality, whether known or
unknown to man. Reality is already in existence and in the invention of man. It
exists independently of being known to perceive by, or related to mind. Man can
only comprehend it, through senses. One should dip below the surface to know
the reality. Proponents include: Mills, Comenius, Russel, Locke, Rouseau etc.
Realism believes that, the individual doesn't make reality, he only discovers
it. Its main tenets (beliefs) are:
·
Realism believes in the world which we see of perceive to
be real.
·
Realists believe in the present life.
·
They believe that the truth of life and aim of life are
in the development from the present unsystematic life.
·
Knowledge is real and can be assimilated by the human
beings.
·
The realists distinguish between ‘appearance' and
‘reality'.
·
Realism believes that there is an objective reality apart
from that which is presented to the consciousness.
REALIST VIEWS
ON METAPHYSICS.
Ø Realists
believe that reality exists independent of the human mind.
Ø Reality is
objective and is composed of matter and form. It is fixed and based on natural
laws.
Ø The world
exists by itself and as a reality independent of whether there are humans to
perceive it or not. The world is not a construct of the human mind.
Ø Matter in the
universe/world is real and independent of the human mind.
Ø Objects have a
reality independent of our knowledge/our desire to know them.
Ø Aristotle the
father of realism believed that in order to understand an object, one must understand
its ultimate form that doesn’t change e.g. arose exists whether or not a person
is aware of it and it shares properties with all flowers.
Ø The world is
well organised.
Ø It is not
chaotic, there is order in its organisation e.g. the night follows the day.
Ø The world is
real and it is what science tell us it is.
Ø The basic facts
discovered by the sciences about the world are true and real therefore
scientific discoveries must be respected.
REALISTS
VIEWS ON EPISTEMOLOGY.
Ø Realists believe
that since the world exist as it is, it is possible to have an objective knowledge
of it.
Ø Knowledge consists
of sensation and abstraction i.e. the process of knowing is that of the mind
responding to impressions that are made upon it from external sources.
Ø It is an act of
grasping and understanding what is presented to the mind from the outside.
Ø We can verify
whether knowledge is true/not by comparing what our senses tell us with the
actual situation if it corresponds then it is true knowledge.
REALIST
VIEWS ON AXIOLGY.
Ø The realist’s
conception of values is also rooted in their metaphysics.
Ø Values are eternal,
absolute and objective. Values exists objectively in things whether we
appreciate or not.
Ø They exist in
objects for us to discover e.g. honey is sweet, sweetness is therefore a property that honey
has whether tested or not. So there are objective values in
culture, objective norms and standards of conduct which do not depend
upon what each citizen thinks/feels. Such objective cultural values and
standards of conduct must form the core- curriculum of a worthwhile education.
Realism and
Aims of Education
·
Realists do not believe in general and common aims of
education. The aim of education should be to teach truth rather than beauty, to
understand the present practical life.
·
The purpose of education, is to prepare the practical man
of the world.
·
Neo-realists aim at developing all round development of
the objects with the development of their organs.
Realism and
Curricula
·
Classical literature should be studied: not study its
form and style but, its content and ideas contained.
·
Essential subject from ancient times: natural sciences
and contemporary social life and on humanistic feelings including subjects like
physics and psychology, sociology, economics, Ethics, Politics, history, Geography,
agriculture varied arts, languages.
Realism and
methods of teaching
·
Education should proceed from simple to complex and from
concrete to abstract.
·
Things before rules and words.
·
Students to be taught to analyze rather than to
construct.
·
Vernacular to be the medium of instruction.
·
The order of nature to be sought and followed.
During
teaching, realists argue that:
1.
Repetition is necessary for retention.
2.
Individual's experience and spirit of inquiry is more
important than authority.
3.
No unintelligent cramming. More emphasis on questioning
and understanding.
4.
Methods of scientific thinking (Inductive).
5.
Method of travel of journey method – field trips (give real
experience of varied aspects of life improve knowledge and mental
faculties).
Realism and the
Teacher
·
A teacher should be such that he himself is educated and
well versed with the customs of belief and rights and duties of people, and the
trends of all ages and places.
·
He must have full mastery of the knowledge of present
life.
·
He must guide the student towards the hard realities of
life. He is neither pessimist, nor optimist.
·
He must be able to expose children to the problems of
life and the world around.
A teacher
should always keep in mind-
1.
Re-capitulation is necessary to make the knowledge
permanent.
2.
One subject should be taught at one time.
3.
No pressure or coercion be brought upon the child.
4.
The practice of cramming should be given up.
5.
The uniformity should be the basic principle in all
things.
6.
Things should be introduced first and then the words.
7.
The entire knowledge should be gained after experience.
8.
The knowledge should be imparted on the basis of organs.
9.
Straight forward method should be adopted for teaching.
10.
There should be a co-relation between utility in daily
life and education.
11.
The child should be told the utility of whatever is
taught.
12.
The simple rules should be defined.
13.
All the subjects should be taught in proper order.
14.
Various organs of education should be taught in
chronological order.
15.
The topic should not be given up unless the students
understand it well.
16.
To find out the interest of the child and to teach
accordingly.
Realism and the
child
·
Realism in education recognizes the importance of the
child. The child is a real unit which has real existence. He has some feelings,
some desires and some powers.
·
Child can reach near reality through learning by reason.
·
Child has to be given as much freedom as possible.
·
The child is to be enabled to proceed on the basis of
facts.
·
The child can learn only when he follows the laws of
learning.
·
The child is to be understood a creature of the real world
there is no sense in making him a God (perfect). He has to be trained to
become human.
Realism and
school organization
1.
School organization would be based on the real needs of
society. It should be established d at a place where it is not needed.
2.
The opening of science classes in every school is must.
Only academic and literary subjects are not sufficient to fulfill the needs of
the society.
3.
Realism doesn't oppose co-education. Sex-drive is a real
feeling. It is a natural happening so it cannot be rejected.
4.
School is the mirror of the society. It is a miniature
form of society and it presents the real picture of the society
Realism and
discipline
·
Discipline is adjustment to objectivity. It is necessary
in order to enable the child to adjust himself to his environment and
concentrate on his work.
·
A disciplined student is one who does not withdraw from
the cruelties, tyrannies, hardships and shortcomings pervading the world.
Realism has vehemently opposed withdrawal from life. One has to adjust oneself
to this material world.
Dark side of
realism
·
Realism recognizes the real existence of the material
world. This recognition remains an objected to unless he says that only
material world really exists.
·
The realist claims to be objective. Objectivity in
knowledge is nothing but the partnership of personal knowledge. Knowledge is
always subjective.
·
The realist recognizes the origin of knowledge from the
datum achieved by senses and asserts that only objects are main and it is
through their contact that knowledge is acquired.
·
The realist does not accept the existence of
transcendental (not based on experience or reason) being.
·
Realism admits real feelings and needs of life on the one
hand, gives no place to imagination and sentiment, on the other.
·
The realist is satisfied simply by the fulfillment of the
needs of daily life and be does not care to make life sublime.
PRAGMATISM AND EDUCATION
Definition of Pragmatism
Pragmatic means dealing with matters
according to their practical significance or immediate importance. Means
doctrine that evaluates any assertion solely by its practical consequences and
its bearing on human interests. The origin is Greek ‘pragma’ meaning ‘use.
Pragmatic theory states that, truth can be known only through its practical
consequences and is thus and individual or a social matter rather than an
absolute. Its major proponent is John Dewey.
PRAGMATIST
VIEWS ON METAPHYISCS.
·
Pragmatists agree with the realists that
the physical world exists in its own right not as merely a projection of the
mind.
·
Unlike realists they neither believe that
this world is permanent nor that it exists independent of the human mind.
·
They believe that reality is not
permanent; everything is in a constant state of flux (change).
·
The world we experience is a growing,
changing and developing thing.
·
The universe is dynamic and evolving.
·
Pragmatist say reality is the totality of
individual experience.
·
Man to them is an experiencing organism
that can-not exist without his environment.
·
Man depends on other organisms for
survival as he is the highest form of organism in the environment.
·
Man depends on experience to understand
the environment.
·
Man has the high intelligence to
use/manipulate the environment.
PRAGMATIST
VIEWS ON EPISTEMOLOGY.
·
The mind discovers values in the same way
it discovers knowledge i.e. through experience.
·
There is no absolute and unchanging truth
but rather truth is what works for us.
·
Truth is relative and subject to change.
·
This is so because human intelligence
proposes hypothesis in order to explain/solve problems.
·
This maybe done through collection of data
to support these hypotheses.
·
Hypothesis that solve problems are then
regarded as true but resolutions to problems may change as new methods emerge.
·
This therefore means that there is no
absolute truth i.e. truth is relative.
·
What this means is that values change as
situations change.
·
They also say that values are relative,
man and his needs determine what is valuable.
·
Values express man’s desires and needs.
MAJOR
CONTRIBUTORS IN PRAGAMATISM.
·
Pragmatism is a 20th century
philosophy founded in the works of Francis Bacon, John Locke, Jean Jacques
Rousseau, Charles Darwin and John Dewey.
·
Bacon’s influence is primarily in his
method of induction which serves as the basis of the scientific method.
·
Late pragmatist extended Bacon’s
scientific approach beyond solving simple material problems to include those in
economics, politics, psychology, education, ethics etc.
·
John Locke influenced pragmatism through his
concept of experience as a source of knowledge.
·
He emphasized the idea of placing children
in the most desirable environment for their education.
·
He further described the ideal education
as being exposed to many experiences.
·
He profounded an idea that children are
born tabula rasa and that society proceeds to write what its wants on their
minds.
·
This implies that the mind is passive.
Educational Aims of pragmatism
·
Pragmatists believe that the aims are always determined
by individual not by any organization or any structure.
·
The aim for education is to teach children to be
comfortable in their learning environment: the environment is not a preparation
for life but life. Educators should thus know the things that motivate and
interest children and plan accordingly.
·
Helping of the child to develop in such a way as to
contribute to his continued growth.
Three characteristics of good
educational aims by John Dewey:
1.
An educational aim must be founded upon the intrinsic
activates and needs (including original instinct and acquired habits) of the
given individual to be educated.
2.
An aim must be capable of translation into a method of
cooperation with the activities of those undergoing instruction.
3.
Educators have to be on their guard against ends that are
alleged to be general and ultimate. Pragmatists sole aim in education is
to provide the conditions that make growth possible.
The concept of Student
·
The student is an experiencing organism capable of using
intelligence to resolve its problems. As a thinking organism his experiences,
and his reflections upon those experiences become a part of him
determining his likes, dislikes, and the future direction of his learning.
·
The student is a whole organism constantly interacting
with the environment. The school is both a part of this environment and a
special manmade environment designed to provide the best possible educative
experience to the learner.
·
The whole organism which is the child consists of the
biological child, the psychological child, and the social child. The
experiencing organism that is the learner brings to school with him all the
meanings, values, and experiences that constitute his personality: his
self.
The concept of Teacher
The role of the teacher is important in successfully
educating children.
The teacher must capture the child’s interest and build
on the natural motivation that exists.
Teachers need to vary their teaching methods to
accommodate each individual learning style because not all children learn at
the same pace or are at the same point.
Teacher should organize knowledge and relate it to
current experiences.
The teacher, for the pragmatist, is a member of the
learning group who serves in the capacity of helper, guide, and arranger of
experiences. He is as involved in the educative process as are this students.
The pragmatic teacher does not abdicate responsibility.
Uses child centered approach not lasses faire (free style)
The teacher is responsible for wiring with the students
and helping them develop their own projects that arise out of the felt
needs of the students rather than those of the teacher.
Curriculum Framework
·
Any educative experience is the subject matter of
the pragmatists curriculum: any experience contributing to growth.
·
The curriculum is learner- centered. In changes and
shifts as the needs of the learners vary.
·
Pragmatists see subject matter as an arbitrary and
wasteful system to which all learners have been forced to conform. They rejects
this system in order to center the subject matter on the problems and
needs of the learner.
Instructional Methodology
·
Methods range from almost complete laissez- the
relatively structured.
·
The project method is the most common.
·
Classroom discussion in a free and open atmosphere is
encouraged, as well as individual problem solving research. All of this
may well involve a tremendous amount of reading, studying, and traditional
subject matter mastery.
·
The curriculum for the pragmatic philosophy supports a
connection between knowledge and experience. It is important for children to
connect the two so learning can become meaningful.
·
Pragmatic method is rooted in the psychological needs
of the students rather than in the logical order of the subject matter.
·
The teacher will as well as possible help the learners at
each stage of the effort: (i) to initiate the activity (to form or choose
the purpose); (ii) to plan how to carry the activity forward, (iii) to execute
to plan: (iv) to evaluate progress during the activity and the result at the
end. While all this is going forward the teacher will also (v) encourage the
learners to think up and note suggestions or new leads for other and
further work; (vi) help them to formulate these suggestions both
for clarification of thinking and for later recall and possible use
(perhaps writing them in a book or on the board for future reference); (vii)
help pupils criticize their thinking en route or at the close, as may seen
wise; and finally (viii) look back over the whole process to pick up and
fix important kinds of learning as well as draw lessons for the future from
both successes and failures.
Criticism to pragmatism
Weak Ontology: the whole structure of the
pragmatic position is relatively unstable due to its lack of a sound
ontological base.
Anti-Intellectualism: the main area of concern for
pragmatists is the marketplace of daily life thus not rationalistic.
Theory of Truth: all other major philosophical systems are
concerned with the nature of truth, but pragmatism challenges the existence of
this core making it a dangerous and radical philosophy.
·
School as Instrument of Social Change: Traditionally
the school has been viewed as society’s instrument for
the preservation and continuation of our cultural heritage but pragmatists
argue that, the school and the whole process of education should be an
instrument of social change and social
EDUCATION AND DEMOCRACY (JOHN DEWEY: OCTOBER 20, 1859 – JUNE 1, 1952)
He was an American philosopher, psychologist and educational
reformer whose ideas have been influential in education and social
reform. Dewey was an important early developer of the philosophy of pragmatism and
one of the founders of functional psychology. He was a major representative
of the progressive and progressive populist philosophies
of schooling during the first half of the 20th century in the USA.
In his advocacy of democracy, Dewey considered two
fundamental elements—schools and civil society—as being major
topics needing attention and reconstruction to encourage experimental
intelligence and plurality. Dewey asserted that:
·
Complete democracy was to be obtained not just by
extending voting rights but also by ensuring that there exists
a fully formed public opinion, accomplished by effective
communication among citizens, experts, and politicians, with the latter being
accountable for the policies they adopt.
·
"Democracy and the one, ultimate, ethical ideal of
humanity are to my mind synonymous."
·
Education and learning are social and interactive
processes, and thus the school itself is a social institution through which
social reform can and should take place.
·
Students thrive in an environment where they are allowed
to experience and interact with the curriculum, and all students should have
the opportunity to take part in their own learning.
·
The importance of education is not only as a place to
gain content knowledge, but also as a place to learn how to live.
·
The purpose of education should not revolve around the
acquisition of a pre-determined set of skills, but rather the realization of
one’s full potential and the ability to use those skills for the greater good.
·
To prepare one for the future life means to give him
command of himself; it means so to train him that he will have the full and
ready use of all his capacities.
·
Education and schooling are instrumental in creating
social change and reform. Education is a regulation of the process of coming to
share in the social consciousness; and that the adjustment of individual
activity on the basis of this social consciousness is the only sure method of
social reconstruction.
·
On educational pedagogy, Dewey argues that the major flaw
in this methodology is the inactivity of the student; within this particular framework,
"the child is simply the immature being who is to be matured; he is the
superficial being who is to be deepened" .
·
For education to be most effective, content must be
presented in a way that allows the student to relate the information to prior
experiences, thus deepening the connection with this new knowledge.
·
Too much reliance on the child could be equally
detrimental to the learning process. Dewey advocated for an educational
structure that strikes a balance between delivering knowledge while also taking
into account the interests and experiences of the student.
·
The present standpoint of the child and the facts and
truths of studies define instruction. Dewey became one of the most famous
proponents of hands-on learning or experiential
education, arguing that "if knowledge comes from the impressions made
upon us by natural objects, it is impossible to procure knowledge without the
use of objects which impress the mind"
·
Many researchers even credit him with the influence
of Project Based Learning (PBL) which places students in the
active role of researchers.
·
The role that the teacher should play within that
process: one should not be one to stand at the front of the room doling out
bits of information to be absorbed by passive students. Instead, the teacher’s
role should be that of facilitator and guide. “The teacher is not in the school
to impose certain ideas or to form certain habits in the child, but is there as
a member of the community to select the influences which shall affect the child
and to assist him in properly responding to these influences”.
·
Thus, the teacher becomes a partner in the learning
process, guiding students to independently discover meaning within the subject
area. This philosophy has become an increasingly popular idea within
present-day teacher preparatory programs.
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